Shriram Tiwary. A short summary of this paper. I thank my classmates of LL. I am conducting this project not only for marks but to also enhance my knowledge. Thank You. Sometimes, legal research can help determine whether a legal issue is a "case of first impression" that is unregulated or lacks legal precedent.
Virtually every lawsuit, appeal, criminal case, and legal process in general requires some amount of legal research.
Legal research is "the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to support legal decision-making. In its broadest sense, legal research includes each step of a course of action that begins with an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the application and communication of the results of the investigation. The processes of legal research vary according to the country and the legal system involved.
However, legal research generally involves tasks such as: 1. Finding primary sources of law, or primary authority, in a given jurisdiction cases, statutes, regulations, etc. Searching secondary authority eg. Searching non-legal sources for investigative or supporting information. Legal research is performed by anyone with a need for legal information, including lawyers, law librarians, and paralegals. Sources of legal information range from printed books, to free legal research websites like Cornell Law School's Legal Information Institute, Findlaw.
Law libraries around the world provide research services to help their patrons find the legal information they need in law schools, law firms and other research environments. Many law libraries and institutions provide free access to legal information on the web, either individually or via collective action, such as with the Free Access to Law Movement. It is expressed in words which are used in a particular context. Whatever be the source of law, it cannot provide remedy for all the situations and for all the time to come.
Changes in society demand that law should move with the time, if it has to remain alive and active and it can remain alive, active and useful, if it is aware of its lacunae and takes steps to overcome it with the passage of time.
The object of legal research therefore, is to find out lacunae or deficiencies in the existing laws and to suggest suitable measures to eliminate them. If there is an area for which there is no law at all the objective of legal research would be to suggest suitable legislation for that area; but if there is a law for that area, but due to one reason or the other, it did not work, its aim would be to suggest reform in the existing law so as to make it workable.
Thus the significance of legal research lies in the submission of proposal for reform in the existing law, be it enacted, customary or judicial. However, this would not be the end or the sole objective of the legal research.
When research is undertaken as a part of process of law reform, it is undertaken for making suggestions for improvements in the law on concrete and easily identifiable matters and the formulation of those proposals in precise terms. The following may be taken as objectives of legal research: 1. The selection of contribution by Fiorino , who distinguishes substantive, norma- stakeholders and involvement methods as well as the consideration of tive, and instrumental arguments. However, while the involvement of stake- objectives for stakeholder involvement in transdisciplinary research: i holders is considered a self-evident integral part of transdisciplinary the normative, ii the substantive, iii the social-learning, and iv the research, in many projects it remains unclear which objectives drive the implementation objective Table 1.
This missing aware- The normative objective refers to the democratic principle that ness is argued to be a fundamental reason why researchers and stake- people should be given the opportunity to contribute to the processes of holders frequently report that expectations regarding the involvement knowledge generation that affect them Arnstein, ; Fiorino, After presenting our methodological approach, we nificance of research Fiorino, ; Stirling It motivates a core introduce a conceptual framework of objectives and then test it by methodological characteristic of transdisciplinarity, the exchange be- applying it in a comparative analysis of the approaches and underlying tween and integration of the various bodies of knowledge, perspectives rationales for stakeholder involvement in three collaborative research and approaches in order to co-produce a socially robust and holistic projects on sustainable land management.
This increases the context-specific 2. Methodological Approach relevance of research Bracken et al. The substantive rationale implies the acknowl- We conducted a narrative literature review — an expert-based edgment that scientific knowledge is just one of many legitimate bodies synthesis of key literature Greenhalgh et al. We understandings and objectives Stirling ; Wesselink et al.
We then applied the resulting framework to three transdisci- derstanding of different interests, potential conflicts, values and capa- plinary research projects in Southern Africa TFO , South America cities. Participation can provide an opportunity for social learning.
All three projects were this to happen, processes of sharing, negotiating and self- reflecting part of the Sustainable Land Management LAMA funding programme upon their multiple perspectives on the issue investigated among of the German Ministry of Education and Research BMBF , Germany. Social learning can Hence the results predominantly apply to this and related research result in establishing new networks, the building of trust and identifi- fields. The group of authors developed and coordinated the cation of balanced solutions Lang et al.
Ecological Economics Table 1 Stakeholder involvement in transdisciplinary research: the four objectives and their principles with references to literature indicating aspects of the objective. Objective Principles Literature references Normative Democratic principle that those affected should have a say Arnstein, ; Fiorino, ; Hage et al. Substantive Improvement of the quality of research Bracken et al. Social learning Stimulating processes of social learning to better understand and solve the Blackstock et al.
Implementation Increase of acceptance and legitimacy of the process outcomes Bracken et al. It can eventually contribute to lasting behavioural and Botswana. The improved system understanding was condensed into change, empowerment and improved capacity to manage change scenarios illustrating alternative future development pathways re- Blackstock et al.
The project incorporated ex- Initiating social learning can be a very sensitive issue, challenging ex- pertise in climate science, remote sensing, GIS modelling, hydrology, isting power structures and running the risk of prompting or fuelling micro-biology, soil science, botany, anthropology, as well as environ- conflicts between actors Reed Although envisaged solutions can be manifold and preferences and acceptability vary be- 4.
It motivates participants to spread the information derived. It focused on one of its semi-arid reservoir regions used and adopted even by agents beyond those involved in the project that was affected by involuntary resettlement due to dam construction Spangenberg, Finally, the ongoing involvement may lead to an in the s Siegmund-Schultze et al.
The reservoir is managed increase of capacity regarding the use and implementation of new with a focus on hydroelectricity generation, which affects the avail- knowledge in the future Bracken et al. Scientists investigated the state and dynamics of farming and fishing and studied aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and functions from a 4.
The Sustainable Land Management programme and the Three systems perspective, as well as interactions between ecological, socio- Project Cases economic, and governance factors.
It aimed at developing solution-oriented knowledge sup- 4. This paper reflects on three of the LAMA projects. While the mountain regions face the challenge of degrading rice terraces, both countries' lowlands face trade-offs between pesticide The TFO project www. Ecological Economics Fig. Assessed importance of selected methods for fulfilling the objectives of stakeholder involvement in the three transdisciplinary projects. The team consisted of experts in and the establishment of local Forums for Integrated Resource geo-chemo-physical, biological, social and cultural sciences, most of Management FIRMs , multi-stakeholder platforms aiming to drive them working with stakeholders.
At the same time, all these instruments served to better understand local stakeholders' perspectives and in- 5. Results tegrate farmers' and academic knowledge substantive objective.
The latter was supported by para-ecologists — members of the rural com- An initial impulse towards stakeholder involvement for all three munities who were employed and trained by the project to support local projects has been the call for project proposals, which specifically re- research activities. The para-ecologists thereby bridged the gap be- quested transdisciplinary approaches BMBF Since the under- tween the communities and researchers and facilitated learning pro- standing of transdisciplinarity remained vague in the call, many project cesses among them Schmiedel et al.
More explicitly, social members perceived transdisciplinarity as a new trend in science learning was the aim of participatory filmmaking and the aforemen- without clear operational implications. The call also demanded that tioned FIRMs. The former allowed local community members to express projects should develop strategies for action, technologies and system their views on natural resource management issues and share them with solutions, which would be judged regarding their usability by stake- the wider public.
The latter facilitated interaction between local land- holders. In the following we present the stakeholder involvement of the users, traditional authorities, local administration and TFO researchers. The analysis is sum- This process supported local communities' empowerment Schmidt marized in Fig.
The effectiveness of the instrument to serve the objectives strongly depended on the individual researcher's awareness 5. Experiences of TFO and interest. Especially junior scientists approached stakeholders for substantive purposes. However, many researchers considered stake- The TFO project largely evolved from previous research initiatives holder engagement to be the normative responsibility of the project in Southern Africa and could build on existing contacts with researchers management team, while the later saw its role in facilitating the whole and stakeholders in the region.
While stakeholders were formerly in- team's interactions mainly to increase the relevance of the research volved in a rather unstructured way Falk et al. TFO established a project substantive and implementation objectives. The project's sta- funded collaboration with national NGOs which could feed project re- keholder analysis revealed at least potential individual, group or sults into decision-making processes even beyond the end of the project.
An engagement with all on normative Their embeddedness in sub- national networks, and their capacity to grounds was impossible. A group of scientists of all involved countries mediate between stakeholder groups, further contributed to social- developed a concept for facilitating stakeholder involvement and opted learning processes.
The NGO partners were also important for sub- for a dual strategy focusing on higher-level decision-makers and local stantive reasons given their experience in accessing local knowledges land-users for a detailed review of the approaches, see Schmidt et al.
Additional policy impact was achieved through par- The latter, mainly subsistence farmers, are directly dependent on In this case, government bodies approached the TFO team and ex- and influence the provision of ecosystem services while being barely pressed demand for the project's expertise. National level stakeholders heard in decision-making processes.
Project introductory workshops were further invited to two project conferences, driven by the implicit aimed at increasing the legitimacy and acceptance of the project and its normative thinking that a project needs to conduct stakeholder work- intentions in the local communities implementation objective.
This shops. Ecological Economics interactions at the conferences from a substantive and implementation implementation issues. Education Days spread information in an in- perspective Fig. Both methods de- Okavango River Basin Water Commission OKACOM as a strategic veloped stakeholders' capacity to apply the research tools and findings partner who could potentially support the intended policy-making im- implementation and social-learning objectives.
With similar inten- pacts implementation objective. OKACOM is an advisory commission tions, joint video-making helped to connect stakeholder practices and on transboundary resource management established by the riparian study results, which stimulated the exchange about experiences, and countries. This highly strategic Implementation was a contested concept in the project. Allowing a broader definition of implementation made the tegrate these into TFO's scenario development substantive objective.
It became clear that the project The scenario-building process stimulated social-learning processes by would not provide ready-made packages of technology to be transferred integrating and communicating different perspectives. The scenarios and implemented. Instead, the scientists gained an understanding that together with a range of other outputs final report, data management they can be facilitators in a transformation process.
Eventually, scientists used their understanding of projects. The initial science partners felt the need to study soil and the system and leverage points to develop demand driven interventions water management in a more interconnected and interdisciplinary way, implementation objective.
Constellation analysis was used as servation of the Caatinga biome by discussing potential land-manage- a bridging method to engage partners — among disciplines and with ment innovations with a regional development agency and providing stakeholders Rodorff et al.
Non-science and science partici- and sharing evidence for the threatened biodiversity e. These interactions were com- understanding of all involved substantive and social learning objec- plemented by a comprehensive open-accessible book for stakeholders, tive. Other researchers struggled with the cognitive and temporal requirements needed for a transdisci- LEGATO's stakeholder interaction was not driven by normative plinary approach and, at the outset of the project, paid little attention to considerations.
The weight of other objectives was not reflected upon stakeholder interactions. You can speak with greater confidence because you know that the information is accurate. Research also becomes the base upon which real-life connections and impact can be made. Curiosity leads to higher levels of positivity and lower levels of anxiety. Well-defined objectives of research are an essential component of successful research engagement.
If you want to drive all aspects of your research methodology such as data collection, design, analysis and recommendation, you need to lay down the objectives of research methodology. In other words, the objectives of research should address the underlying purpose of investigation and analysis. Research objectives help you stay focused and adjust your expectations as you progress. The objectives of research should be closely related to the problem statement, giving way to specific and achievable goals.
Here are the four types of research objectives for you to explore:. Also known as secondary objectives, general objectives provide a detailed view of the aim of a study. In other words, you get a general overview of what you want to achieve by the end of your study.
Specific objectives define the primary aim of the study. Typically, general objectives provide the foundation for identifying specific objectives. They help define the who, what, why, when and how aspects of your project.
The specific objectives will look like this:. To determine through history how the organization has changed its practices and adopted new solutions. To assess how the new practices, technology and strategies will contribute to the overall effectiveness. Here are a few effective tips to develop a powerful research plan and improve your business performance. Continuously track your progress and check whether you need to revise your expectations or targets.
Generally, a project should have no more than two or three aims statements, while it may include a number of objectives consistent with them. At the conclusion of your project you will need to assess whether or not you have met your objectives and if not, why not. However, you may not always meet your aims in full, since your research may reveal that your questions were inappropriate, that there are intervening variables you could not account for or that the circumstances of the study have changed, etc.
Whatever the case, your conclusion will still have to reflect on how well the research design, which was guided by your objectives, has contributed to addressing your aims. The final written report has a flexible structure. Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of rendering the complexity of a situation.
These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion.
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